The Strong Nuclear Force | Essay

The Strong atomic Force EssayYoussef El LaithyOne of the most extraordinary simplifications in physical science is the fact that neverthe slight four distinct wildnesss be responsible for that the known spectacles that go on in the universe. These four basic staff offices are the electromagnetic take up, the gravitative ram, the weak atomic draw out and the squiffy nuclear force. Since the weak and the steadfast force act e re each(prenominal)ywhere an extremely short range, (less than the coat of a heart), we do not experience them directly. Even though we dont directly experience these forces they are vital to our existence. These forces determine whether the nuclei of trusted(prenominal) elements anyow for be abiding or will deterio pass judgment, and they are the basis of the energy release in umteen nuclear receptions. The forces determine not only the st fittedness of the nuclei, but in alike manner the abundance of elements in reputation. The pro perties of the nucleus of an atom are determined by the number of electrons the atom has. The number of electrons in an atom, therefore, determines the chemistry of the atom. The gravitational force is responsible for place together the universe at large, the atmosphere, water, and us humans, to the planet. The electromagnetic force g everyplacens the atomic level phenomena, binding electrons their atoms, and atoms to early(a) atoms in narrate to form molecules and compounds. The weak nuclear force is responsible for certain grammatical cases of nuclear reactions. The fourth and last force, the unbendable nuclear force is responsible for holding the nucleus together.The Strong Force is also peerless of the four thorough forces of nature, experienced by particles called quarks and sub particles made up of quarks. It is theforce that causes the interaction responsible for binding and holding protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus of a given element. The strong fo rce is the strongest of among all the opposite forces forces, being approximately 100 times as strong as the electromagneticforce. It has the extremely short range to which it has an effect. A range of approximately 10-15 m, less than the size of the atomic nucleus. The strong force is carried by particles called gluons that is, when particles interact through with(predicate) the strong force, they do so by exchanging gluons. The protons in a nucleus must experience a repulsive force from the other protons in the nucleus.This is where the strong nuclear force comes into play. The strong nuclear force is created amid the nucleons (protons and neutrons) by the ex alteration of particles called mesons. This exchange can be compared to constantly smash a tennis ball or a football backside and forth between ii people. As long as these particles (mesons) are in motion back and forth, the strong force is able to hold the participating nucleons together. Thenucleons, however mustbe ext remely close to each other in order for this exchange of mesons to occur. The blank space requiredfor the force to take place and have an effectis roughly about the diameter of a proton or a neutron. Thus, if a proton or neutron can get closer than this distance to proton on neutron, the exchange of mesons occurs normally and the force has an effect. However,if they cant get that close, the strong force is too weak to make them bind together and thus the force wont have an effect and the nucleus would rapture.The range of the Strong Force varies from where it takes place. The strong interaction is apparent in two areasOn a large scale (about 1 to 3 femtometers ), it is the force that binds protons and neutrons (nucleons) together to form the nucleus of an atom .On a smaller scale (less than about 0.8 femtometers, the spoke of a nucleon), it is the force (carried by gluons ) that holdsquarkstogether to form protons, neutrons, and other hadron particles.The discovery of the S trong of the nuclear force was a remarkable discovery and cleared up stacks of mysteries that haunted many physicists in this era. The discovery force wasnt all at once meaning that the discovery was based on the work of untold than once scientist and physicist all over the years. The number 1 discovery was by James Chadwick. In 1932, British physicist James discovered that the nucleus of atoms contain neutrons. Soon later on(prenominal) this discovery, the American-Hungarian physicist, Eugene Wigner suggested that the electromagnetic force wasnt the force responsible forholding the nucleus together and he also suggested that there are two antithetical nuclear forces not just one.Later on,In 1935 Japanese Yukawa Hideki reasoned that since the strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force had never been noticedor observed by the bare eye or even by microscopesthey must act over a range smaller than the diameter of the atomic nucleus.Yukawa conditioned the first field theory of the strong force with a new particle he called mesons as the force carryingsimulated particle. From these facts and hypothesizes, Hideki Yukawa concluded that there exists a force that binds nucleons (protons and neutrons) together. He named the force the strong nuclear force because it had to be stronger than the electromagnetic force that would otherwise push the nucleons apart.In day-to-day life and our day to day life, were only certain of two fundamental forces gravity and electromagnetism. Physicists know about two to a greater extent forces, which are carried out wi turn off the atom itself (inside atoms) the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.Try and imaginetwo protons (positive charge), they are pulled together by the strong nuclear force (as long as they are within range to start with). But the electromagnetic force pushes them away(p) from each other, because they both have the same positive electric charge.When we talk about the uses if the strong nuclear force we cant really trust a direct use in which humans use the force. The only direct use is that the binding energyrelated to the strong nuclear force is apply innuclear personnelandnuclear weapons. The strong nuclear force is crucial to our everyday survival, God created this force exactly to suit our survival. Following this notion two questions are raisedWhat would happen if the strong nuclear force were a bit weaker?If the strong force were even slightly weaker than what it is, it would not be able to hold the atomic nuclei together once morest the repulsive force of the electromagnetic force. According to Barrow and Tipler Ifthe Strong Force was decreased by 50% its normal power thiswould adversely affect the st capability of all the elements meaty to living organisms and biological systems. A bit more of a decrease, and there wouldntbe any stable elements except hydrogen.What would happen if the strong nuclear force were a bit stronger that what it is?According to Bo rrow and TiplerIf the strong nuclear force was just a bit stronger compared to the electromagnetic force, two protons could stick togetherdisregardof their electromagnetic repulsion (forming a diproton).If this happened, all the hydrogen in the universe would have been burned to helium. If there were no Hydrogen in the universethere would be no water, for a start, and there would be no long-lived stars like the sun. (Stars made from helium burn up much more supplely than stars made from hydrogen).In conclusion, The Strong Nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces found in nature. The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus. The interactions are experienced only by particles called quarks and by elementary particles made from quarks (mesons, gluons). The discovery of the strong nuclear force was possible by the collective work of many physicists over many years. The strong force isnt of that much of direct use for huma ns. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. If the strong nuclear force was slightly even weaker than it is, all the chemical elements acquireed for life would not be stable, and we, humans, would not seize to exist. The strong force isnt of that much of direct use for humans. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. Ifthe strong nuclear force was weaker than it is, the chemical elements needed for life wouldnt be stable, and we would not be here. On the other hand, if it were even slightly stronger than it is, all the hydrogen in the universe would have been burned in the big bang. As a result, there would be no prolonged stars like the sun, and no molecules like water. There would probably be no complex chemistry in the universe, and we would not seize to exist.CitationsFundamental Forces.Fundamental Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2013. http//hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/funfor.html .The Nucleus.The Nucleus. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2013. htt p//www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/physics/nucleus.html .The quartet Fundamental Forces.ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2013. http//library.thinkquest.org/27930/forces.htm .The Strong Nuclear Force.The Strong Nuclear Force. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. http//aether.lbl.gov/elements/stellar/strong/strong.html .The Strong Nuclear Force.The Star Garden. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http//www.thestargarden.co.uk/Strong.html .Nuclear Forces.Nuclear Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http//www.alternativephysics.org/book/NuclearForces.htm . internal superpower Or force machine Power? discipline Power Or soldiers Power?The inter matter system at once is an interplay of field power of different republics. This can be felt in the emerging innovation order. There has been a perceptible change, particularly during the last two decades, in the manner the nation states conduct supra guinea pig relations. Military alliances have given way to multilateral g roupings, understandings and strategic partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly aware of the power or forge that they wield vis--vis other nations.1They are also looking at the ways and means to use this internal power to guarantee their vital interests. In the later part of last century, theme Power was only considered to be soldiers power as can be silent by the superpower status of Soviet Union. But the disintegration of the Soviet empire and changing face of world relations over out-of-pocket to stinting globalisation changed the world perception and brought the term Comprehensive National Power. This term was more inclusive of the overall state of the affairs of a nation and a banknote of its constituents could indicate the skill and weaknesses.2National Power has discernible and in unmistakable elements. Geography, natural resources, industrial capacity, population, military power form the tangible parts while interior(a) character and morale complete the in tangibles. Indias economy has contributed in the last two decades towards a major share of the National power. In fact, India has even demonstrated certain soft power by cooption and attraction of other nations to achieve slightly of its aims. The primary currencies of soft power are an actors values, culture, policies and institutions. Indias soft power is based on its social and cultural values, the Indian Diaspora abroad and its knowledge base. India is being considered a knowledge superpower and is well placed to leverage its position in international relations. However, the military has also contributed towards the soft power. A well-run military has been a source of attraction, and military-to-military cooperation and training programmes, for example, have open up transnational networks that enhance countrys soft power.METHODOLOGY record of ProblemThe harvest notwithstanding, India cannot afford to be satisfied with its current status. The geopolitical situation in the regi on is unstable. Though Pakistan has less options left by and by it has been open(a) as a hub of terror activities and a haven for wanted terrorists, still if cornered by the world pressure and the internal compulsions it will not think twice in a military option against India to divert the attention and bring in its all weather friend , mainland China, into the picture.India can achieve its national aims only if the internal and external threats to its security is ensured. This situation can be understood with an analogy to game of soccer a team may be having the best of strikers in their forward and midfielder players, who can score goals at will, but their efforts are inconsequential if the goalkeeper is not trained and equipped to save goals from adversary.Thus, in the changing geopolitical situation, it is pertinent to evaluate the share of constituents of National Power to ascertain the future dynamics of a nations aspirations and interests and the regional environment.India has already made nasty progress in various fields to achieve soft power constituent to contribute towards National Power. Indian economy is showing positive growth and attracting strategic partnership with leading economies around the globe.India , now needs to overhaul the military constituent to further pursue its National aim.HypothesisIndia needs to develop a potent Military capability by the year 2025 to be able to assert its National Power in keeping with the stated National objectives.Methods of Data Collection9. The data for this dissertation has been collected from a large number of books, periodicals, magazines, newspapers, internet and research journals that are available in the Defence go Staff College library. The data related to Indian Military Power has been collected from open sources only so as to avoid any classified instruction to be brought out. The Bibliography is attached as Appendix.Organisation of the DissertationApart from a chapter on the introduction and methodology, the dissertation has been organized under the following chapters-CHAPTER 2. CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN depicted object POWER particle 1. National Power.Section 2. Indias National Power.Section 3. Constituents Of Indian National Power.CHAPTER 3. armed forces POWERSection 1. Elements of Military Power.Section 2. Present declare Of Indian Defence Forces.Section 3. Defence Budget And Modernisation Program.CHAPTER 4. SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAS MILITARY POWERSection 1. Analysis.Section 2. Intra Organisaton Level.Section 3. Shortcoming As A National Instrument.Section 4. Recommendations .CHAPTER 5. DESIRED NATIONAL POWER BY 2025Section 1. Geopolitical situation and regional environment In 2025.Section 2. Indias Predicted Growth By 2025.Section 3. Desired National Power.Chapter 2- Examining the constituent of Indian National Power. The present Indian standing in the world order is based on the soft power developed and the sparing growth achieved by India. India as rising econom y, offers excellent investment opportunity to the world. The democratic form of governance also projects India as stable and secure investment site in the long run. However we need to examine the constituents and their present share towards National Power.Chapter 3- Military Power. It itself comprises the tangibles and the intangibles. It can be loosely categorized in force capability and force employment. There has been a change in war weight-lifting. The technological advancement ,weapon lethality, destructiveness and precision along with the randomness frontier has increased the cost factor of going to war. Thus there is a need to analyse the military power constituents to understand the importance towards national Power.Chapter 4- Analysis and Short comings of Indian Military Power. To suggest steps towards projecting a stronger military power the present capability needs to be analysed and the flaw to be highlighted.Chapter 5- Desired National Power by 2025. The regional en vironment in the near future inculpates proactive approach by India to project spatiotemporal national power to have secured borders and assured growth to achieve its national aims .CHAPTER 2CONSTITUENTS OF NATIONAL POWERNational Power1. The international system today.is an interplay of national power of different nations. There has been a perceptible change.in the manner the nation states conduct International relations. Military alliances have given way to multilateral groupings, understandings and strategic partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly.aware of the power or influence that they weild.vis--vis other nations.2. During 1960 and 70s most theorists.doing research on international relations avoided dealing.with phenomenon of power. National power was considered synonymous.with military power. This would rationalize to a great extent the superpower status.of erstwhile Soviet Union and its unexpected disintegration. Since then perception of national power.has undergo ne a change. It is called as comprehensive National power by the theorists which is a more inclusive term comprising all the facets of a nations resources which contribute towards its security.Defining National Power3. National power is the ability of a nation with the use of which.it can get its will obeyed by other nations. It involves the capacity to use force.or threat of use of force over other nations. With the use of national power, a nation is able to control.the behavior of other nations in accordance with its own will. In other words, it denotes the ability of a nation.to come across its national goals. It also tells us how much powerful or weak.a particular nation is in securing its national goals.Basic Elements Of National Power4. The basic elements of national power include diplomacy, economics, instructional, soft power and the age old trustworthy element of military power. It can also be classified as comprising of tangible elements and intangible elements. Geograph y, natural resources, industrial capacities, population, military power form the tangible elements of national power and national character and morale complete the intangibles.Indias National Power5. In international politics, the image of India till recently used to be in terms.of its perennial rivalry with Pakistan and as power confined to South Asia only. However, as result of the remarkable improvement.in Indias national strength over the last decade, consisting of.its hard and soft powers, the world has started rehyphenating India.with a rapidly growing China. The term rising India is a buzzword in the International Relations discourse nowadays. Indias national power has begun to rise steadily.since Pokhran-II. India unleashed a slew of path-breaking initiatives.in quick succession in 1998 (and beyond). It was from this year frontwards that the idea of India being a great power,.first floated by Nehru, started to be reflected in its foreign policy. Admittedly, India shifted its foreign and economic policies.soon after the end of the frigid War in 1991 when it started broadbasing.its diplomacy, initiated economic reforms by dismantling the economic model.based on import substitution, and went for market friendly policies. The economic reforms did give India economic stability.in the sense that India started growing at 6% annually.ever since the economic liberalization of early 1990s, however, political stability remained fragile. The country got much-needed political stability.at the center in March 1998 and a series of radical initiatives in quick succession beginning with the nuclear tests in the Pokhran desert of Rajasthan on May 11th and 13th 1998, was a grand strategic masterstroke by independent India. India initiated Multi-aligned/ neat power diplomacy.for the first time in its independent history when it developed strategic partnerships.with all the great powers simultaneously, especially its relations with the United States and Japan, while retai ning tried ties with Russia. India made institutional arrangements to its national security.when it set up the National Security.Advisory Board, National Security.Council, Nuclear Command Authority, developed a.nuclear doctrine, and so on.6. More importantly, India developed a much needed strategic vision.whereby it redefined its geo-strategic.construct well beyond the mainland of South Asia. The comprehensive geo-strategic.construct included the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, Central Asia and the Asia-Pacific. In fact, the 1998 nuclear tests themselves were indicative of the fact that India had begun to revalue the role of hard power in securing its national interests and also in making her influence heard in international politics.7. The India, that China defeated.in 1962 was guided by a foreign policy canon of non-alignment.vis --vis the superpower enmity, and it remained the cornerstone of Indias international.diplomacy for more than four decades. However, this foreign policy paradigm underwent.a U-turn when it metamorphosed into poly/multi-alignment under the new leadership.in New Delhi in 1998. The new foreign policy outlook.broadly had two components, namely, improving relations with the US and its Look East Policy-II. The turnaround in India-US relations from being estranged democracies during the Cold War to engaged democracies in the 2000s has played a central role in bringing out a shift in Chinas India posture over the last decade. India has been a democracy right since its birth as a modern nation-state in 1947. However, its sluggish economic growth and weak military pen that led to its defeat in 1962 seriously stained this aspect of Indias soft power.8. With the rising India story, its democracy as an important component of its soft power has again come into the global limelight. India has more than 1 billion people. It is linguistically, culturally, racially, and religiously diverse, and it is growing economically at an enviable pace under de mocratic organizational institutions (except for the hand brake period of 1975-77 when civil liberties were undermined). Its culture values peaceful coexistence, nonviolence, and religious tolerance. All of these factors, combined with the largest pool of English speakers outside the US, has increased Indias power of attraction without need for coercion or persuasion, a fact not lost on an envious, hard power-minded China. The country to which India has projected most of its soft power is the US, through the export of highly skilled manpower, consisting mainly of software developers, engineers, and doctors.9. In military terms, post-1998 India has been enjoying strategic capital, in the sense that, unlike the rise of China, Indias military rise is not only not feared but it is felt to be desirable by the countries in the Asia-Pacific like Japan, Australia, South Korea, and ASEAN as a group. Most importantly even the US sees Indias military rise in its own interests.28 Interestin gly, a rising India is making full use of this capital by emerging as a unnerving military power over the last decade, apart from unveiling even more ambitious military plans for the futureCHAPTER 3MILITARY POWERMilitary Power1. Military Power is military dimension of national power. National power embodies soft persuasive or attractive elements as well as its hard or military component. Military power can itself mean different things in different contexts as military forces do different things ranging from argue national territory to invading other states countering terrorists or insurgents, keeping the peace, enforcing economic sanctions, maintain domestic order. Proficiency in one task does not entail proficiency in all as good defenders of national territory can make poor peacekeepers and also may not be able to conquer neighbours.2. Since beginning of civilization, military power has been the primary instruement nation states have used to control and dominate each other. With the growth of engineering science, the destructiveness of military power has reached apocalyptic proportions.3. Throughout history, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have been reversed. Japan, China have relied on economic prosperity to finance formidable military forces. Conversely, erstwhile Soviet Union, Iraq and North Korea have relied on their military to build economic power with little or limited success.4. Military power is the capacity to use force or threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power for a nation include number of military formations, armaments, organization, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale.Elements of Military Power5. Elements of military power are worked out on the basis of military capability of nations. It includes numerical preponderance, technology and force employment. . Numerical preponderance has been exemplified in yes teryears Napolean said ,God is on the side of the big battalion6. It is generally believed that states with bigger population, more developed economies, larger military should prevail in battle. This is association of victory with material preponderance and beneath this lies the widespread perception that economic strength is precondition for military strength that economic decline leads to military weakness and that economic policies merit co equal treatment with political and military considerations in national strategy making. Military preparedness requires a military (establishment) capable of supporting the foreign policy of a nation. Contributory factors are technology,leadership, quality and size of the armed forces.(a) Technology. The development and sufferance of firearms, tanks, gunsand aircraft have had a profound effect on the course of battles. To illustrate,if one reads the review of British operations during the initial stages of theSecond World War, which Churchill gave in the secluded session of parliamenton 23 April 1942,one is struck by the fact that all defeats on land, on sea andin air have one common denominator-the disregard of technologicalcapabilities being developed by Germans and the Japanese during the pre-waryears. The U-boats played havoc with the British shipping and adverselyaffected their ability to operate forces from one theatre of war to another, asalso to sustain them. Conversely, the development of radar technology by theBritish during the war years gave them enormous benefit over theirenemies. In the present-day context, capabilities in cyber warfare, spaceassets and smart strike weapons will give a great edge to the powers that areable to develop and operationalise such technologies.(b) Leadership. The quality of military leadership has always exerted adecisive influence upon national power. We have the examples of the militarygenius of Fredrick the Great, Napoleon, the futility of Maginot Line psychologyof the Fren ch General Staff versus the blitzkrieg adopted by the GermanGeneral Staff, and closer home the effect of superior military leadership ledby Field Marshal SHFJ Manekshaw in Indias 1971 War with Pakistan.(c) Quality and Size of the Armed Forces. The importance of this factor isobvious. However, the question that has to be answered by the politicalleadership of the country is, how large a military establishment can a nationafford in view of its resources and commitments or national interests?CHAPTER 4SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAN MILITARY POWERMuch has been written and said about the potential for Indian military power to play a greater role on the world stage, and perhaps check Chinas expanding capabilities in the future.National Security has attained multi-faceted dimensions with wider challenges in diverse fields.There has been growing understandings of these challenges and consequently measures are being taken to overcome the same. Indias remarkable economic growth and newfound access to arms from abroad have raised the prospect of a major rearmament of the country. But without several policy and organizational changes, Indias efforts to acquire its armed forces will not alter the countrys ability to deal with critical security threats. Indias military modernisation needs a transparent, legitimate and efficient procural process. Further, a chief of self-renunciation staff could reconcile the competing priorities across the three military services. Finally, Indias defense research agencies need to be subjected to greater oversight.Indias rapid economic growth and newfound access to military technology, especially by way of its rapprochement with the United States, have raised hopes of a military revival in the country. Against this optimism about the rise of Indian military power stands the candor that India has not been able to alter its military-strategic position despite being one of the worlds largest importers of advanced stuffy weapons for three decades.Civ il-military relations in India have focused too heavily on one side of the problem how to ensure civilian control over the armed forces, while neglecting the other how to build and field an effective military force. This imbalance in civil-military relations has caused military modernization and reforms to suffer from a omit of political guidance, disunity of purpose and effort and material and intellectual corruption.The Effects of Strategic RestraintSixty years after embarking on a rivalry with Pakistan, India has not been able to alter its strategic relationship with a country less than one-fifth its size. Indias many counterinsurgencies have lasted twenty years on an average, double the oecumenical average. Since the 1998 nuclear tests, compensates of a growing missile gap with Pakistan have called into question the quality of Indias nuclear deterrent. The high point of Indian military history the button of Bangladesh in 1971- therefore, stands in sharp contrast to the pe rsistent inability of the country to raise effective military forces.No factor more accounts for the haphazard nature of Indian military modernization than the lack of political leadership on defense, stemming from the doctrine of strategic parapet. Key political leaders rejected the use of force as an instrument of politics in favor of a policy of strategic ascendance that minimized the importance of the military.The Government of India held to its strong anti-militarism despite the reality of conflict and war that followed independence. Much has been made of the downgrading of the service chiefs in the protocol rank, but of greater consequence was the elevation of military science and research as essential to the long-term defense of India over the armed forces themselves. Nehru invited British physicist P.M.S. Blackett to examine the relationship between science and defense. Blackett came back with a report that called for capping Indian defense spending at 2 percent of GDP and limited military modernization. He also recomm stop state funding and ownership of military research laboratories and established his protg, Daulat Singh Kothari, as the head of the labs.Indian defense spending decreased during the 1950s. Of the three services, the Indian naval forces received greater attention with negotiations for the acquisition of Indias first aircraft carrier. The Indian Air Force acquired World War II surplus Canberra transport. The Indian Army, the biggest service by a wide margin, went to Congo on a UN peacekeeping mission, but was neglected overall. India had its first defense procurement scandal when buying old jeeps and experienced its first civil-military crisis when an army chief threaten to resign protesting political interference in military matters. The decade culminated in the governments forward policy against China, which Nehru foisted on an unprepared army, and led to the war of 1962 with China that ended in a humiliating Indian defeat.The for emost lesson of 1962 was that India could not afford further military retrenchment. The Indian government launched a significant military elaboration program that doubled the size of the army and raised a fighting air force. With the focus shifting North, the Indian Navy received less attention. A less recognized lesson of the war was that political interference in military matters ought to be limited. The military and especially the army asked for and received operational and institutional autonomy, a fact most visible in the wars of 1965 and 1971.The problem, however, was that the political leadership did not suddenly become more comfortable with the military as an institution they remained alert of the possibility of a coup detat and militarism more generally.The Indian civil-military relations landscape has changed marginally since. In the eighties, there was a degree of political-military confluence in the Rajiv Gandhi government Rajiv appointed a military buff, Arun Singh, as the minister of state for defense. At the same time, Krishnaswami Sundarji, an exceptional officer, became the army chief. Together they launched an ambitious program of military modernization in repartee to Pakistani rearmament and nuclearization. Pakistans nuclearization allowed that country to escalate the subconventional conflict in Kashmir while stemming Indian ability to escalate to a general war, where it had superiority. India is yet to fall out from this stability-instability paradox.The puzzle of Brasstacks stands in a line of similar decisions. In 1971, India did not push the advantage of its victory in the eastern theatre to the West. Instead, New Delhi, underuberrealist gear up Minister Indira Gandhi, signed on to an equivocal agreement at Simla that committed both sides to peaceful resolution of future disputes without any enforcement measures. Indias decision to wait 24 years between its first nuclear test in 1974 and the second base set of tests in 1998 is equ ally puzzling. Why did it not follow through after the 1974 test, and why did it test in 1998?Underlying these puzzles is a remarkable preference for strategic restraint. Indian leaders simply have not seen the use of force as a useful instrument of politics. This foundation of ambivalence informs Indian defense policy, and consequently its military modernization and reform efforts.To be sure, military restraint in a region as volatile as South Asia is wise and has helped persuade the great powers to accommodate Indias rise, but it does not help military planning. Together with the separation of the armed forces from the government, divisions among the services and between the services and other related agencies, and the inability of the military to seek formal support for policies it deems important, Indias strategic restraint has served to deny political guidance to the efforts of the armed forces to modernize. As wise as strategic restraint may be, Pakistan, Indias primary rival, hardly believes it to be true. Islamabad prepares as if India were an aggressive power and this has a real impact on Indias security.Domestic And Regional ConstraintsIndia faces several daunting domestic and border challenges within its own propinquity that may prevent it from thinking more globally including the unresolved issue of Kashmir, an increasingly grave Maoist threat, Islamic terrorism from Pakistan, and unresolved border issues with China which broke out in war in 1962. Beijings effort to beef up its presence in South Asia is also seen as challenging Indian dominance there. The Lack of StrategyIndias military modernization carcass, and likely will continue to be, an a-strategic pursuit of new technology with little vision. There is a alone host of problems that the nation faces, includingLittle political guidance from the civilian leadership to the military. This is true even on the general issue of what Indias major goals should be. Even the Indian navy, which is of ten assumed to be the most forward thinking institution within Indias military, does not see itself as more than a naval occlude vis--vis Pakistan.Lack of organizational and institutional reforms. The need to reprioritize resources is never addressed, what is addressed is the procurement of new material, thus making modernization merely an exercise in elongated expansion.No legitimate and transparent procurement system. As a result, purchases are often ridden with scandals, corrupt, delayed and highly politicized. Indias Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) is also a failed organization that is ideologically corrupt, but there has not been an honest attempt to put it under public scrutiny.Imbalance in Civil-Military RelationsWhat suffices for a military modernization plan is a regard list of weapon systems amounting to as much as $100 billion from the three services and remove announcements of coming breakthroughs from the Defense Research and Development Organiz ation (DRDO), the premier agency for military research in India.The process is illustrative. The armed forces propose to acquire certain weapon systems. The political leadership and the civilian bureaucracy, especially the Ministry of Finance, react to these requests, agreeing on some and rejecting others. A number of dys constituents ensue.First, the services see things differently and their plans are essentially uncoordinated. Coming off the experience of the Kargil war and Operation Parakram, the Indian Army seems to have arrived at a Cold Start doctrine, seeking to find some fighting space between subconventional conflict and nuclear exchange in the standoff with Pakistan. The doctrine may not be official policy, but it informs the armys wish list, where attack helicopters, tanks and long-range artillery stand out as marquee items. The Indian Air Force (IAF), meanwhile, is the primary instrument of the countrys nuclear deterrent. The IAFs close second role is air superiority an d air defense. Close air support, to which the IAF has belatedly agreed and which is essential to the armys Cold Start doctrine, is a distant fourth.The Indian Navy wants to secure the countrys sea-lanes of communications, protect its energy supplies and guard its trade routes. It wants further to be the vehicle of Indian naval diplomacy and sees a role in the anti-piracy efforts in the Malacca Straits and the Horn of Africa. What is less clear is how the Indian Navy might contribute in the event of a war with Pakistan. The navy would like simply to brush past the problem of Pakistan and reach for the grander projects. Accordingly, the Indian Navys biggest procurement order is a retrofitted aircraft carrier from Russia.Indias three services have dramatically different views of what their role in Indias security should be, and there is no political effort to ensure this coordination. Cold Start remains an iffy proposition. Indias nuclear deterrent remains tethered to a single deliver y system fighter aircraft. Meanwhile, the Indian Armys energies are dissipated with counterinsurgency duties, which might increase manifold if the army is told to fight the rising leftist insurgency, the Naxalites. And all this at a time when the primary security threat to the country has been terrorism. After the Mumbai attacks, the Indian government and the people of India are said to have resolved to tackle the problem headlong, but today the governments minister in charge of internal security, Palaniappan Chidambaram, is more under siege himself than prehend the hidden enemy.Second, despite repeated calls for and commissions into reforms in the higher defense structure, planning, intelligence, defense production and procurement, the Indian national security establishment remains fragmented and uncoordinated. The government and armed forces have succeeded in reforms primed by addendums to the defense budget but failed to institute reforms that require changes in organization an d priorities.The Kargil Review Committee, and the Group of Ministers report that followed, for example, recommended a slew of reforms. The changes most readily implemented were those that created new commands, agencies and task forces, essentially linear expansion backed by new budgetary allocations. The changes least(prenominal) likely to occur were those required changes in the hierarchy.The most common example of tough reform is the long-standing recommendation for a chief of defense staff. A military chief, as opposed to the service chiefs, could be a solution to the problem that causes the three services not to reconcile their prGas Sensing Properties of Te Thin Films Thickness and UVGas Sensing Properties of Te Thin Films Thickness and UVThickness and UV ir radiation syndrome effects on the plash signal detection properties of Te thin fool awaysAbstractIn this research, tellurium thin pictures were investigated for use as hydrogen sulfide fellate sensors. To this end, a tellurium thin film has been deposited on Al2o3substrates by thermal evaporation, and the influence of oppressiveness on the predisposition of the tellurium thin film for mensuration H2S bluster is study. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, see electron microscope(SEM) and Raman Spectrometer were utilized for characterizing the prepared samples. XRD patterns indicate that as the thickness increases, the crystallization improves. Observing the images obtained by SEM,itisseenthat the texture size increases as the thickness increases, and consequently, fewer defects will be seen in the surface of the film. poring over the effect of thickness on H2S gun for hire measurement, it became obvious that as the thickness increases, the sensitiveness decreases and the response and retrieval time increases. Studying the thermal influence of the thin film while measuring H2S gas,it becomes obviousthat as the detection temperature of the thin film increases, sensitivity and the response an d recovery times reduce. To improve the response and recovery time of the tellurium thin film for measuring H2S gas, the influence of UV radiation while measuring H2S gas was also investigated. The results indicate that the response and recovery times strongly decreaseusing UV radiation.IntroductionTellurium is a P vitrine semiconductor with narrow band gap and a gap energy of 0.35eV which makes it ideal for use in thin film transistors 1, gas sensors 2-4, optical information storage 5 and shields in passive radiative cooling 6. Recently, it has been shown that the tellurium thin film is sensitive to some venomous gases like H2S 7. Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic and corrosive gas which is formed in coal mines, oil and gas industries, chemical products plants, and the sewers. Exposure to small amounts of this gas (less 50 ppm) causes headache, poor memory, loss of appetence and irritability, while motion picture to large amounts (most of 500 ppm) will cause death after 30-60 legal p roceeding 8. So far, various semiconductor metal oxides have beenproducedfor spy H2S gas such as SnO2, WO3, and CeO29-11. The main problem of these sensors is that theyrequire high temperature for measuring H2S gas, and this high temperature will shorten the life of the sensor12. Measuring gas through semiconductor metal oxide depends upon parameters like thickness of the thin film, deposition temperature, and the substratematerial. So far, few reports have been issued about the sensitivity of the tellurium thin film to some reducing and oxidizing gases such as NO2, CO, NH3, and H2S 4,7,13,14. In this research, the influence of the thickness of the tellurium thin film on detecting H2S gas and also the influence of the film temperature and UV radiation while measuring H2S gas have been studied.Experiment detailsTellurium thin films with thicknesses of 100, 200, and 300 nm measured by Quartz digital thickness gauge, were deposited on Al2O3substrate by thermal evaporation of pure tell urium in a tungsten crucible. Substrates were cleaned for 30 minutes by alcohol and acetone in ultrasonic bath. The initial pressure of the vacuum chamber and the temperature of substrate while depositing were respectively 310-5mbar and 373K. The growth rate of the film and the deposition area were respectively 5nm/s and 100mm2. Gold electrodes were deposited on the surface of film through thermal evaporation and copper wires were attached to them by silver paste. The microstructure of the films was characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD). The morphology of the films surface was determined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Sensor response to various concentration of H2S gas was studied in a container made of stainless steel with a volume of 250cm3.The galvanising shield of the sensors was measured by a multimeter as a function of time. Gas limitdetection was performed for the films with different thicknesses and at different environment temperatures. The sensors were al so exposed to UV radiation while detecting H2S gas. The mechanism of gas detection was investigated by Raman spectroscopy technique. The spectra were recorded before and after characterisation to the gas. Raman spectra of the films were recorded in back scattering geometry with a spectral resolution of 3 cm-1. The 785 nm line of Ar+laser was usedfor excitation.Results and DiscussionXRD patterns of tellurium films with different thicknesses are shown in fig. 1. In this figure, the peaksdenotedwith star are related to Al2O3substrate. At 100 nm,Te thickness peak of low intensity is observed at 27.77which is related to Te (101) with hexagonal structure. At 200 nm, in addition to Te (101), another peak comparable to Te (100) appears at 23.15. Finally, besides Te (100) and Te (101), a new peak is observed at 40.78which is related to Te (110) with hexagonal structure. From the XRD results, it can be inferred that, thickness increasestheresults in an increase of film crystallinity due to t he increase of the number of planes that generate diffraction. Fig. 2 shows the SEM images of prepared Te films at differentthicknesses.S1At 100 nm, the grains are separated from each otherby alarge distance, thereby forming discontinuous and rough surface. Increasing film thickness leads to an increase of surface homogeneity and continuity, grain size increaseas well. Fig. 3 depicts the foe variation of the tellurium thin films with different thicknesses at room temperature before exposure to H2S gas. It can be seen that the film electrical opposite decrease with thickness increase due to step-down of irregularity in grain arrangement and inhomogeneity onthefilm surface,which leads to a better charge carrier mobility. The sensitivity of the films to H2S is given byS=Where Raand Rgare the electrical resistance of the film in the air and the H2S respectively. Fig. 4 shows the effect of Te film thickness on sensitivity to 8ppm of H2S at room temperature.Note that the film sensitiv ity decreaseswithan increase inthickness. To explain this behavior, it is worth mentioning that the proposed mechanism for H2S gas measurement is as follows the group O in the air is adsorbed by the film surface, especially in the grain boundaries and film porosities. After adsorption, atomic number 8 reacts with Te film surface and based on the film temperature, it can be ionized into O2, O2-, O(in the temperatures less than 150C the ionization form is O2). These forms of type O ionization increase the film plenty density which meansa reduction of Rain P type semiconductor such as Te. As H2S gas is added, it reacts with ionized oxygenand the result will bethereturn of electrons inside the film and reduction of the hole numbers and increase of Rgresistance. The reactions are shown belowO2(gas) O2(ads)(1)O2(ads)+ e O2(ads)(2)H2S(gas)+O2(ads) H2(gas)+SO2(gas)+ e(3)At 100 nm Te thickness, the presence of a high density of grain boundaries and defects results in a high H2S gas adsorp tion which causes noticeable variations in film electrical resistance,indicating an increase of sensitivity. At higher thickness, where the grain boundary and defects densities decrease,the changes in resistance are intangible involving a decrease in the sensitivity as shown in fig. 4. The other important characteristic of sensor is its selectivity. The sensitivity on exposure to 10 ppm of CO, NH3and NO was found to be 3 %,40 % and -67 % (negative sign indicates reduction in resistance), respectively. Thus we see that the Te films have much larger sensitivity towards H2S gas in comparison to other gases. Fig. 5 shows the response kinetics of Te films at different thickness (100 nm and 200 nm) after exposure to 8ppm H2S. Considering the response and recovery times, the times for reaching 90% of steady-state values of Raand Rgrespectivelycan be defined. It can be clearly seen in fig. 5 that thickness increase leads to an increase of response and recovery times. The former and the latt er are due to high adsorption rate of H2S and O2gases, respectively, at 100 nm by the great numbers of grain boundaries and defects 15. Fig. 6 shows Raman spectra of 100 nm Te sample before and after exposure to 8 ppm H2S gas at room temperature. In both spectra, peaks at 123, 143 and 267 cm-1are related to tellurium. Two other peaksobserved in sample before inducing H2S gasat 680 and 811 cm-1are assigned to TeO216.Notice that the intensity of oxide phase is much less than that of Te phase indicating that a low fraction of Te film is oxidized,whichisdue to Te atoms on the surface 17. After exposure to H2S gas,based onthe proposedreaction mechanismthe TeO2peaks have almost disappeared. In addition, no peak corresponding to H2S or compounds of sulfur or hydrogen is detected in film after exposure to H2S gas. Fig. 7 shows the sensors sensitivity as a function of H2S gas concentration for 100, 200 and 300 nm samples at room temperature. The film to 100 nm Te thickness presents a linear response fromthe8 to 34 ppm range and the film sensitivity seems to saturate at higher concentration. As expected, from fig. 7it can be seenthat the sensitivity decreases as the film thickness is increased. Figure 8 shows the results related to response and recovery time for all sampleswhile being exposed to various concentrationsof H2S gasatroom temperature. Studying the resultsit isclearthat as the H2S gas concentration increases, the response time decreases and the recovery time increases.Thisis because as H2S gas concentration increases, the probability of a reaction between gas and ionized oxygen becomes more probable, and more reactionswill be observedin a shorter time which causes the resistance to change faster and at last reach a constant level. As the concentration goes up, more H2S gas molecules are absorbed and their desorption requires a longer time. The resistance of different samples as a function of detection temperature before exposure to H2S gasis shown in fig. 9. In all thickness, a decrease of resistivity is observed with temperature increase due to electrical properties of semiconductor, as well as increase of oxidation reaction rate. In the caseof300 nm Te films the variation of resistance is insignificant because ofthevery low resistance of this sample. Fig.10 shows the results related to sensitivity as a function of temperature while being exposed to 8ppm of H2S gas. Investigating the results,it is found that temperature rise leads to reductions insensitivity in all samples, because the number of charge carriers in samples increases asthetemperature rises and as a result, when samples are exposed to H2S gas, no tangible resistance change is observed and sensitivity decreases 18. In samples with 300nm thickness and with temperatures above 90Cthere is no sensitivity against H2S gas,since the number of charge carriers is sohighthat their change is never tangible by reaction with H2S gas. Fig. 11 shows the recovery and response times as a function of temperature while being exposedto8 ppm H2S gas. In all samples,as the temperature rises the response and recovery time decreases. Overall, two factors are effective for a reaction first, the molecules which are going to take part in the reaction must have a lot of energy, second, they must collide with one another in an appropriate direction. Temperature rise causes an increase in energy and more effective collisions will take place between reactants, and the response and recovery time decrease. To study the effect of UV irradiation on the sensor properties during the gas detection, samples are simultaneously exposed to 8 ppm H2S gas and UV radiationatroom temperature. Fig. 12 shows a comparison between the sensor sensitivity of the UV exposedand unexposed cases as a function of Te film thickness. It is obvious that application of UV radiation results in a dramatic reduction of sensors sensitivity. As it is well-know, UV radiation creates supplementary charge carriers by an excess of electron-hole pairs formation.Increase of charge carriers numberinvolves a decrease of resistance such that the changes of resistancearenot tangible while reacting with H2S gas. Fig. 13 presents the recovery and response times as a function of H2S gas concentration before and after exposure to UV radiation.It is observedthat the recovery and response times strongly depend on UV radiation. These two parameters decrease with UV radiation due to creation of electron-hole pairs. The created electrons react with adsorbed oxygen, so the number of ionized oxygen reacting with H2S gas increase, which can result in an increase of reaction rate between oxygen and H2S gas. The above explanations can be summarized in the following reactionsO2(gas) O2(ads)(4)O2(ads) + e O2(ads)(5)h e + hO2(ads)+ e 2O(ads)(6)H2S(gas) + O(ads) H2(gas) + SO(gas) +e(7)It is worthnoting that the increase of UV radiation intensity has no effect on sensitivity,response and recovery times of Te sensors. Al so, to evaluate sensor stability, the samples of 100 nm and 200 nm Te filmweresubjected to 8 ppm H2S at room temperaturefor 60 days, thentheir basic resistance and sensitivity were measured as shown in fig. 14. The results indicate that both resistance and sensitivity of sensors remainnearlyconstant, confirming suitability of Te films for use as sensor.ConclusionIn this work, thickness effect of Te films for H2S gas sensing are investigated. A strong dependenceonelectrical resistance and sensitivity to Te film thickness is observed.Thismeans that increasing the thickness leads to a decrease of sensor sensitivity and increase of response and recovery times.Consideringthe sensing mechanism of Te thin films which is based on the interaction of ionized oxygen with H2S gas, the grain boundaries and the surface roughness could be considered as active sites for trapping the gas molecules. Thickness increase leads to a decrease of these active sites. The results show that although the Te se nsor can operate at room temperature, a decrease of response-recovery times can be obtained at higher operating temperatures. Raman spectroscopy shows that adsorbed oxygen on the surface of Te films can be removed after exposure to H2S gas,leading to changes in the film resistance,UV radiation,as well as response-recovery times. The prepared sensors present a stability in sensitivity and resistance for 60 days after exposure to H2S gas which confirmstheir ability tobeusedas H2S gas sensor.